Indeed, only once in all of the PR elections in the five cities in Ohio did a minor party candidate win office--a Socialist in Ashtabula in 1915. PR proponents were correct, then, in predicting that this candidate-centered system would take power away from party leaders and give more of it to voters. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. In an almost "what's the point" statement of the political landscape, two of the four seats were not even challenged by Democrats in 2012. “About Congressional Apportionment.” http://www.census.gov/population/apportionment/about/.Eagles, Charles W. Democracy Delayed: Congressional Reapportionment and Urban–Rural Conflict in the 1920s. The United States has always had a tradition of single-member district, winner-take-all elections. 127; ratified by the states on July 9, 1868. Some Progressives also added proportional representation to this reform agenda. The single transferable vote had allowed African Americans to be elected for the first time, with two blacks being elected to the city council in the 1950s. It did so by allowing the election of independent Democratic and Republican candidates--candidates nominated by petition and not beholden to party bosses. (Here is my understanding of proportional representation, I would love more insight: Proportional representation is an electoral system used by democracies all around the world, but not by the United States. They warned whites that PR was helping to increase black power in the city and asked them whether they wanted a "Negro mayor." So it is hardly surprising then that few Americans are aware of our history of experimentation with proportional representation (PR) elections. Another factor working against defenders of proportional representation in many cities was the controversial nature of minority representation. By 1962, only Cambridge, Massachusetts retained this system. Indeed, striking decreases in conflict were found after PR/STV was implemented in Hamilton and Toledo." Large cities often were dominated by ‘party machines,’ of which Tammany Hall in New York City was the most infamous. Besides such issues as child labor laws, anti-monopoly legislation, and women’s suffrage, Progressives were also interested in government reform. While it was a step in the right direction, it did little to ease the country’s racial tensions. The Proportional Representation League of the United States was also instrumental in promoting the use of PR. PR opponents shrewdly decided to make race an explicit factor in their repeal campaign. During the use of PR, the Democrats still had a majority of the seats, but it was a much smaller one that reflected more accurately their strength in the electorate. Political scientists call it "the single transferable vote." By 1932, the PR League was losing steam. The Concept of Representation in the Age of the American Revolution. "(3) This "red scare" campaign resulted in the repeal of PR by an overwhelming margin. The most extensive research to date has been produced by Kathleen Barber and several colleagues. Opponents had forecast a drop in turnout, with voters discouraged by complicated ballots and incomprehensible vote counting procedures. In the United States, electoral reform activists have taken to calling it "choice voting." Two exceptions to this trend were Cincinnati and Cambridge, both of which had active and well-supported organizations dedicated to defending PR.

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